A Guide To Musical Analysis (Overview)

'A Guide To Musical Analysis' by Nicholas Cook, looks at multiple ways to analyse music such as 'Schenkerian Analysis', Psychological Approaches To Analysis', 'Comparative Analysis', Modern Approaches To Analysis and 'Formal' Approaches.

The literature details the aims and theories behind each analytical process and provides an in depth look at how to utilise each method.

The book will provide guidance when preparing an analytical framework for the 'Case Studies', (Music Analysis) required for the honours project. The framework will take aspects from multiple theories in order to obtain the specific information which is required and will be combined with my own knowledge and previous experiences to target specific point of interest when looking at film scores.  

Musicophilia (Overview)

'Musicophilia' by Oliver Sacks deals with similar topics that are present in other literature such as 'The Music Instinct' and 'This Is Your Brain On Music'. However the authors writing style makes things slightly easier to read. He places all the information required to understand how music effects us emotionally and psychologically into short stories of patients whom he tested over the years. This writing style prevents the reading of the topics from becoming a task and rather an entertaining and more natural way to process and learn (the short stories allow for the topics to have associations within your mind).

Music Composition: for dummies (Overview)

'Music Composition: for dummies' is useful for providing guidance throughout the creative process of the honours project. It looks into various compositional forms, techniques, structures and ideas to aid the creativity of the reader. The book utilises a concise and easy to read format, that breaks down each component of the composing process to allow for an easy to understand method of music writing for multiple forms of media.

The information within the book is provided by Scott Jarrett ( Music Director and Instructor) and Holly Day (Award-winning music journalist).

1408 Air Duct Video Clip (Handwritten Notes)

1408 - Air Duct Video Clip (Practice)

A small scene from the film '1408' was used to practice composition techniques as well as to provide a means to practice linking themes to images.

The film requires a tense atmosphere throughout which is brought about utilising several techniques.

Build up to chase sequence. 

1. The Piece is in the key of F minor
2. The piece draws upon both Harmonic minor and Melodic minor throughout sections of its structure. 
3. The build up to the chase sequence is Modal (modal based) utilising the mode of C Phrygian Dominant derived from the Melodic minor scale.
4. The Build up to the chase is minimalistic in its approach, utilising sustained notes throughout, whilst subtly using obscure musical instruments which almost take the form of sound effects (e.g. reversed piano and reverb saturated percussive wooden blocks). 
5. The emphasis is on the minor second interval present in the Phrygian dominant mode. The Mode creates an almost mysterious quality when played as a scale run. This scale run is present in the mother and baby scene and is very subtly played on the piano to produce this desired effect. 
6. The sound of the reversed piano is very unusual and provides tension throughout the sections where the character looks down the various pathways in the air duct. This also added to the visuals of the panning camera as the swelling sound emphasised this movement.

Chase Sequence.

1. The powerful almost percussive sound of the piano chord accompanied by the concert bass drum provides a drastic change in dynamics and timbre which is intended to make the listener jump and feel threatened.
2. The trilling violins which blend into the decay of the impact, crescendo and build up in layers in order to keep the suspense and tension building after the initial impact has been heard.
3. Violins play a repeated melodic pattern throughout the first part of the chase sequence with the main focus and emotional drive being provided by the drum patterns. 
4. The second chase theme initially syncs up with the movements of the 'enemy' character which is slightly off beat. The rhythm slowly moves back into time allowing for further layers to build on top of the rhythmic motif more easily. By synchronising the movement to the character it allows for a more tense visual as the character randomly jumps on screen. This can also potentially produce a jump scare effect.  
5. The ending of the theme is synchronised when the main character falls out of the air duct and smashes the table below. The intent is to cut out the music and allow for dialogue and sound effects to take over as the main focus, this will resolve the tension and make it feel as if the threat is no longer present. 

Example Violin melodic pattern .

The dialogue and sound effects present in the clip are used as place holder to allow for a better representation of the slower less dramatic sections of the video. During the conversation between the two men in the park a slight hint of the original soundtracks music can be heard, this can potentially be removed by utilising various filters, enhancers and noise reducer plug-ins, however this is a work in progress and the dialogue and sound effects from the original piece have remained unedited. They have been taken from the centre channel of the 5.1 surround mix found on the DVD, this allows for a more clear representation of the vocals and some sound effects without music, however on occasion music may bleed into the centre channel. The main purpose of the video is to practice synchronising musical compositions and motifs to the visuals, the video is a work in progress and certain aspects would need tweaking.  

Ideas for future.

1. The final chase theme would need to utilise more instrumentations in order to make the lengthy scene build more tension and to highlight when the audience should feel nervous e.g. when the 'enemy' character tries to grab at the main characters legs.
2. All dialogue and sound effects would need to be present throughout the clip and would need to be edited and processed in order to remove unwanted noises and musical notes which should not be present in the alternate version. 
3. The music would need to be worked on in relation to dialogue and sound effects to provide a greater balance of dynamics which will emphasis specific points of the score and to pull focus towards dialogue as opposed to the underlying ambient layers present throughout the first part of the video. 

Music Theory: for dummies (Overview)

'Music Theory: for dummies' is an extremely useful book regarding the honours project. It provides almost every possible piece of information required to understand and develop skills relating to composing and playing music. The books simple layout and highlighted important Tips and Quotes allow for a simple and entertaining read. The information provided is backed up by images of musical scores and diagrams to further increase simplicity and understanding.

The information within the book is provided by Michael Pilhofer, MM (Music Director) and Holly Day (Music Writer).

Composer Mark Isham's Tips For Creating A Movie Soundtrack

A History of Film Music (Overview)

'A History of Film Music' by Mervyn Cooke discusses topics relating to the evolution of the film soundtrack. the book provides many sources of inspirational composers and pioneers of film, which prove to be useful when investigating composers and their work. The author discusses the evolution of equipment over the years, detailing how it has changed the way film soundtracks are made (changing the standards of the industry) and also looks into 'silent film' similar to Michel Chion in his book 'Audio-Vision'detailing how it has influenced and changed the film soundtracks of today.

Research Aim and Objectives (New version)

After some reflection upon my research aims and objectives, it has been decided that games will not be a part of the project, this stems into multiple areas of research and will prevent the work from being focused enough.

A questionnaire will also be utilised to determine the effectiveness of the practical assignments involved in the project.  

Aim.

Investigate how the compositional elements of music can be utilised to create an emotional response within the consumers of film soundtracks, and create several examples of musical concepts/compositions which can be used to determine the effectiveness of the researched methods.  

Objectives.

1. Research, Music Theory, Compositional Techniques, The Importance of Instrumentation and The Effects of Music on Emotion and Characterisation.
2. Devise, a framework for musical analysis of film soundtracks.
3. Analyse, various film soundtracks and detail important aspects of their construction, the effect they have on the scene, how they set a tone for the scenes/ characters etc. 
4. Create, several soundtracks alongside cinematic scenes which utilise the information gained throughout the process of the project.
5. Devise, a questionnaire which will show the effectiveness of the music composing practical aspect of the project.

Audio-Vision (Overview)

'Audio-Vision' by Michel Chion, investigates the way audio is perceived alongside moving images, with regards to 'Silent' films all the way up to the modern 'Hollywood Blockbusters' of today.  He utilises various theories which detail the way the human mind alters between different mindsets, altering the perception of sounds depending on the factors of analysis.
The most important of which is his devised theory of the 'Three Listening Modes' which he describes throughout the literature.

1. Causal Listening
2. Semantic Listening
3. Reduced Listening

He also discusses the effects of sound on the perception of movement and speed, visual cues and spotting techniques, the influence of sound on the perception of time and sound 'temporalisation'. 

These are some of the most important topics discussed within the literature relating to the honours project aim. 

Music Analysis Framework

Music Analysis Framework.

The Framework will utilise a mixed method approach as it will better suit the aims and objectives of the project and will provide end results which will compliment the final practical assignment. The main purpose of the framework is to ensure that each analysed piece of music is equally treated to allow for a fair comparison which will identify differences in technique and construction. These identified methods will be use to aid in the development of new compositions and ideas throughout the project and will be drawn upon for inspiration and influence.

Aim of Analysis.

The analysis of music will provide information on how musical elements combine to create ideas and motifs and will provide an in depth understanding of the use of form, harmony, rhythm, melody, dynamics and instrumentation etc.  By investigating the structuring of melodic phrases the analysis will provide an insight into how these pieces of music utilise compositional techniques and will benefit the work within the project.

Framework

1.      Identify: Key signature, Time Signature and Tempo.
2.  Analyse chord progressions used, Investigate the Scale tones and  their relationship to the chords ( Harmonic Analysis).
3.    Identify structural patterns and the effects they have on the overall perception of the piece. ( Leitmotif)
4. Analyse the use of varying instrumentation if present. What is the purpose of the other instruments etc.
5.    Utilise Musical excerpts to allow for easy access to specific sections of the music that is being analysed.
6.  Identify specific intervals utilised to produce effective tonality, motif building.
7.  Identify instrumentation used to texture and provide emphasis to parts of the musical score.
8. Identify reasons as to why the composer utilises specific structures and techniques.  

Analysis: Ride of the Valkyries (Case Study)

Analysis: Ride of the Valkyries.

Ride of the Valkyries ( first written on July 23rd 1851) is one of the most famous pieces composed by Richard Wagner. The piece is the third act in the popular opera "Die Walkure" however it can be heard as a separate instrumental piece out with the opera house, usually in a much shorter form. It is one of the best pieces to analyse for its use of leitmotif and for this reason has been referenced many times in popular media, most notably the film "Apocalypse Now".

The analysis will cover the introduction build up and the main thematic melody of the piece, showing various techniques and structures utilised.

Introduction (Bars 1 to 12) [only full measures are counted] .

The key signature has two sharps in it, C# and F# therefore the piece is either in D Major or B minor. However the tonal key is B minor due to the starting note or tonic note of the piece being B, therefore it can be said that the key is B minor.

The time signature of the piece is in a compound time signature 9/8 (Compound Triple). The time signature is continuous throughout the piece with no changes occurring.

The tempo is written as Allegro meaning "at a brisk speed". Allegro is a term used to associate a speed / tempo to a mood or style of music. Allegro usually falls under 120 bpm - 168 bpm. Therefore if the music is played between these tempos it will generally create the desired effect in which the composer intended the music to be heard.

 The piece begins with an anacrusis ( a note or a sequence of notes that come before the first complete bar in the piece, it does not hold the number of beats dictated by the time signature and will usually be resolved by removing the number of beats utilised from the final bar in order to provide an even measure).  The anacrusis is used to prepare the listener for the bars to follow. In this instance it is played as a scale run from B to E  by the violin and violoncello. The combination of the violin and violoncello creates depth to the scale run as it plays in unison and makes the anacrusis more prominent and impactful due to the differences in timbre. The anacrusis is not considered a full measure so should not be counted until its resolution at the end of the piece.

Figure 1. Anacrusis

The first bar is composed of trills played on the Oboe, English Horn, two A- Clarinets and a Bass Clarinet. This instrumentation provides a thick and heavy texture of sound and adds to the frantic rhythmic idea and build up of the intro making it feel very imposing. The instruments are playing the notes F# and G in unison. One Clarinet plays in a lower register as opposed to the other to help emphasis the bold sound.

Figure 2. Trill Pattern

The trilling phrase of the introduction continues throughout to bar 12 and is sequenced, with each repeat adding another layer of pitch to the phrase by utilising different instruments such as the Piccolo and Flute. The pattern moves up and down in pitch frequently to produce a thick texture to the intro which aids in building tension and keeps the listener interested by providing variety and complexity to what would normally be (if played only on one instrument) a continuous repetition of a phrase that would become boring quickly. The phrases are also played fortissimo meaning very loud.

Throughout the repetition of the trilling phrase the String ensemble play an occurring theme at the end of each bar, this theme is a repeat of the anacrusis scale run and is used to loop back into the trill sections. The scale run also adds to the bold texture whilst adding a feeling of agility to the music, possibly to emphasise the motif employed by Wagner ( the swooping down of the Valkyries from Valhalla).

Figure 3. Recurring Scale Run

During the introductory build up to the main theme, a small melodic layer is added to the trills (See Figure 4). The phrase is composed of a three note structure, utilising the notes B and F#, it then moves in sequence resulting in the phrase starting again on an F# and then moving to the B where it resolves on the tonic note. This phrase is later utilised alongside the main themes melody to emphasis the chord changes of the piece. The Bassoon, English Horn and Violoncello (Played Staccato), play this theme with subtle variations in dynamics and playing style to produce more depth to the overall feel of the composition. These instruments compliment the idea of boldness present throughout the piece.   

Figure 4. Example of a phrase moving in sequence

  Four bars after "Figure 4" is introduced the string section plays a series of arpeggios that move in sequence. The arpeggios are met with the scale run present in the anacrusis to link them into each other. The sequence of arpeggios are shared between different sections of the ensemble. This provides more tension in the build up to the main theme whilst providing depth and complexity to the overall sound of the piece. Like "Figure 4" this repeats throughout the composition but is sequenced through the main theme to highlight the chord changes. The timbre of the strings and the speed in which they play the succession of notes increases the frantic feeling of the piece and further strengthens the motif of agility and flight established earlier in the music.

 

Figure 5. String ensemble scale runs

Main Theme.

The main theme is played on the (B) Trumpet, (E)Trumpet, (E) Horn and (D) Bass-trumpet.

 The main theme has a triumphant feel to it complimenting the idea of the Valkyries carrying fallen warriors to Valhalla, this is achievable through the use of Brass instruments due to their unique characteristics.

The main section of music is composed of a melody which moves in sequence much like the previous mentioned sections. However the main melody is formed over several more measures by utilising slow sustained notes. This helps to distinguish the main thematic idea from the rest of the frantic underscore.  

Figure 6. Main Melodic Theme (taken from Horn section)

Figure 6 demonstrates a technique known as call and response, where one instrument will play a short phrase followed up by another phrase performed on another instrument, usually in a different contrasting rhythm. The above example shows two Horns, one playing a quick succession of notes, the other playing longer sustained notes. This melodic phrasing builds up in sequence moving up in pitch with every measure to build suspense. The Melody continues throughout the piece, with a subtle variation introduced near the end which also moves in sequence and follows the same structural technique of "call and response" until it reaches a climax, where it  resolves and finishes on the tonic note.   

Music and the Mind (Overview)

'Music and the Mind' by Anthony Storr, shows the powerful effects of music on the human perception, detailing key aspects of human nature which have led to music becoming one of the most manipulative experiences.

The book details how human experience can change the way we perceive a piece of music and documents basic structural features which the mind recognises as patterns that influence the way we react to music. The book discusses many philosophers outlook and understanding of music and how it effects our ways of thinking. Philosophers of influence such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Plato as well as modern researchers such as Oliver Sacks and John A. Sloboda are mentioned referring to other pieces of literature which expand on the topics discussed.

1408 Fire Scene Video Clip (Practice)

A small scene from the film '1408' was used to practice composition techniques as well as to provide a means to practice linking themes to moving images.

The film requires a sad and climactic build up.

The themes utilised did not quite fit the movements and pace of the scene and did not emphasis the emotions correctly. The piece can be further improved by removing the orchestral section and replacing it with a more subtle piece.

The practice has shown me where improvements need to be made and this will help further my work in the future.

Psychology of Music (Overview)

'Psychology of Music' by Carl E. Seashore looks at music from a more in depth scientific viewpoint than books such as Philip Ball's 'The Music Instinct' and Daniel Levitin's 'This Is Your Brain On Music'. Therefore some of the contents can be quite daunting, requiring prior knowledge of acoustics theory and music theory.

The literature provides depth greater than most books of a similar nature but at times can be quite difficult to comprehend , not due to the authors structuring of the literature or his writing style, rather because of the complex matters discussed.

The literature content presented is quite dated and further studies have been conducted in some areas discussed, however the book lays a foundation which is essential when considering new theories and scientific test results relating to the psychological effects of music.

Modes (Music Theory)

Major Scale Modes.

1. Ionian/ Major Scale.
2. Dorian.
3. Phrygian.
4. Lydian.
5. Mixolydian.
6. Aeolian/ Natural minor scale.
7. Locrian. 

Harmonic minor modes.

1. Aeolian Major 7/ Harmonic minor.
2. Locrian #6.
3. Ionian Augmented/ Ionian #5.
4. Dorian #4.
5. Phrygian Dominant.
6. Lydian #2.
7. Ultralocrian/ Diminished.

Melodic minor modes.

1. Jazz minor/ melodic minor ascending.
2. Dorian flat 9.
3. Lydian Augmented/ Lydian #5.
4. Lydian dominant.
5. Mixolydian flat 13.
6. Semi-Locrian. 
7. Super Locrian/ diminished Whole-tone.

This Is Your Brain On Music (Overview)

'This Is Your Brain On Music' by Daniel Levitin discusses how the human brain perceives music,  showing how varying musical elements can singly or collectively produce emotional responses within the listener. The book utilises a similar method to Philip Balls 'The Music Instinct', showcasing theories and points of psychology through the use of music theory. This allows for a wider target audience whilst maintaining depth and reason to his points stated.

The Book has its main focus on elements such as:-

1. Pitch and Timbre
2. Rhythm, Loudness, and Harmony
3. Human Expectation
4. Music and emotion with regards to the brain 

The above points are discussed in depth throughout the literature and all interlink. The structure of the book allows for each element to be easily understood and digested with each topic seamlessly interchanging with the next. 

The Music Instinct (Overview)

'The Music Instinct' by Philip Ball, details recent findings in music psychology and brain science to inform the reader of how music and mind relate and why it is we respond to music with regards to emotion. The book looks closely at fundamental aspects of music theory and culture, showcasing how music has evolved or been established in various different ways across the world.

Although the book provides explanations regarding music theory, it can become fairly difficult to grasp without approaching it with a basic understanding of the topic, this is due to the context in which the author applies the use of music theory. He utilises examples of music and combines them with scientific facts and theories to provide the reader with an in depth understanding of how the individual components of music composition produce and induce emotional responses within the listeners. However, it is not required to have an in depth knowledge of psychology or neuroscience as the author explains each point clearly and concisely targeting a broader audience.  

 

Composition Practice 2

The second composition targets a different emotion compared to the first, with its main focus on sadness and loneliness. Once again the composition has been written for the piano as its timbre characteristics best suited the motif implied.

The piece is in the key of D minor.

The piece involves a more simplistic approach with regards to its underlying chord structure, however it utilises small motifs and more complex notation throughout to provide tension and emotional contrast. 

The introduction starts with a solo piano playing small phrases. These phrases are then met with a contrabass playing a long sustained note. The piece has an underlying string section which adds depth and power to the chord progression used. 

 Characteristics such as tempo, dynamics and timbre will provide depth to the music whilst reinforcing the tonal centre of the piece.

Composition Practice (Composition 1)

The first composition utilises a theme which progresses over a chord sequence that holds no relation to the diatonic key ( its uses a borrowed chord from its relative). The effect created is a unique harmony which sounds almost mournful when coupled with the Major scale. The Key of the piece is 'A' Major, starting on an 'A' Major add 9 Chord which is played as an arpeggio. This then progresses to an 'A' suspended 2nd chord with an 'F' in the bass (the 'F' is the borrowed note from the parallel key of the piece - 'A' minor). This chord voicing produces a large amount of tension throughout the progression.

Modal interchange is the process of borrowing a chord from a parallel key to act as an embellishment or colour chord. The piece is in key of A major however throughout the piece an F major and G major are present which does not belong to the scale tones of the major key, these notes appear by borrowing them from the parallel key of A minor which contains these characteristics. The effect created is unexpected producing suspense and a sense of unresolved tension. The simple melodic phrasing is used as an embellishment on the tonality of the chord changes and helps to establish this desired effect. 

The use of the G major chord allows for the phrase to resolve back to the tonic key in such a way that allows for a smooth transition, providing the piece with variation in its emotional theme, changing the feel into something which resolves into a happier mood. 

The main instrumentation utilises the piano for its ability to provide the music with a soft impression of sadness whilst also allowing the piece to transition into a more resolved happiness, the timbre felt right for implying this emotion. 

The main theme is accompanied by a soft sustained violin progression, which is used to add depth to the piece and to emphasis the soft contour of the main motif.